Paleontology sucks a little sometimes because of just how generally awful the fossil record is. By that, I mean that the fossil record has a bias and only a fraction of all life that has ever lived or died, for that matter, has become fossilized and survived the millions of years as a fossil for us to find them. That being said, the fossil record is still far better than one might suspect. So, most of the time extinct taxa are known from only one specimen. Another is never found ever again. However, there are a few that have continued to crop up in various rock layers as more and more work is done on those layers. The giant dinosaurs were no exception, and there are now over a handful of individual specimens known from several dinosaur genera, and even species – Diplodocus, Apatosaurus, Allosaurus, Stegosaurus, Pachyrhinosaurus, Edmontosaurus, and many more are known from so many specimens that growth stages, sexual dimorphism, individual variation, pathology, and much more can be understood or entirely solved. Two of my favorite examples of this sort of cosmic luck, are Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops.
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✅ REFERENCES ✅
Bakker, R.T. (1988). Review of the Late Cretaceous nodosauroid Dinosauria: Denversaurus schlessmani, a new armor-plated dinosaur from the Latest Cretaceous of South Dakota, the last survivor of the nodosaurians, with comments on stegosaur-nodosaur relationships. Hunteria 1(3), 1-23.
Ballou, W.H. (1897). Strange creatures of the past. Gigantic saurians of the reptilian age. The Century Magazine, 55(1), 15-24.
Blows, W.T. (2001). Dermal armor of the polacanthine dinosaurs. In K. Carpenter (Ed.), The Armored Dinosaurs (pp. 363-385). Indiana University Press.
Cope, E. D. 1872. On the existence of Dinosauria in the Transition Beds of Wyoming. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 12:481–483.
Cope, E.D. (1873). “The monster of Mammoth Buttes.“ Pennsylvania Monthly, 4: 521-534.
Cope, E.D. (1889). The horned Dinosauria of the Laramie. The American Naturalist, 23(272), 715-717.
Galton, P.M., & Sues, H-D. (1983). New data on pachycephalosaurid dinosaurs (Reptilia: Ornithischia) from North America. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 20(3), 462-472.
Hatcher, J. B., O. C. Marsh, and R. S. Lull. 1907. The Ceratopsia. Monographs of the United States Geological Survey 49.
Horner, J.R., & Goodwin, M.B. (2009). Extreme cranial ontogeny in the Upper Cretaceous dinosaur Pachycephalosaurus. PLoS ONE, 4(10): e7627.
Hutchinson, H.N. (1893). Extinct Monsters: A Popular Account of Some of the Larger Forms of Ancient Animal Life. Chapman & Hall.
Marsh, O.C. (1891a). The gigantic Ceratopsidae, or horned dinosaurs, of North America. The American Journal of Science, Series 3, 41(242), 167-178.
Marsh, O.C. (1891b). Restoration of Triceratops. American Journal of Science, Series 3, 41(244), 339-342.
Osborn, H.F. (1898). Models of extinct vertebrates. Science, 7(182), 841-845.
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